The Swinging Pendulum of Enlightenment, Romanticism, and Modernism (1685-1960)
Over the centuries, technological advancements shrank the world by linking entire countries through every-expanding communication. This connection allowed ideas to spread rapidly, often letting entire worldviews dominate Western society in a fraction of the time it once took. Just as cultures around Jews or Christians influenced the ancient concept of Satan, Satan’s nature and power likewise evolved through these cultural shifts.
During the Enlightenment (1685-1815), the West rejected folklore and superstition, pursuing observable science over the mysterious supernatural. This shift reduced Satan from a real creature to a mere concept of human evil. Romanticism (1815-1870) countered the Enlightenment’s cold rationality by elevating personal experience and sensationalism, revisiting the supernatural by giving Satan a minor role in personal religious experiences with God. Modernism (1870-1960) reacted to the failings of Romanticism and religious tradition by criticizing Christianity for clinging to outdated ideas that defied the superiority of secular reason, making Satan one more foolish belief in Christian superstition.
Throughout these shifting worldviews, the prevailing culture shaped Satan’s presence in the public arena. Yet in America, especially during and after Modernism, segments of Christianity continued the Puritan tradition of seeing Satan actively involved in any threat to what they believed was set aside by God. This dualism led to a militant view that Satan was secretly influencing events and worldviews that threatened American morality and Christianity’s popularity. We’ve seen the historical development of Satan become closer to what we’re familiar with, but let us see the “almost” god of evil undergo one more transformation before reaching our popular modern version.[1] [2]
The Finishing Touches from Pentecostalism, Fundamentalism, and Modern Revivalism (1906, 1920, 1947)
While some Christians allowed Modernist culture to shape their beliefs, others pushed against it. Among the many groups in the 20th century who contributed to modern Christianity, two radically different groups deserve brief examination. As they stood up to combat Modernism’s attempt to defang the supernatural and holy aspects of Christianity, their assumptions about culture and personal difficulties would put the finishing touches on the picture of Satan as an “almost” god of evil.
Pentecostalism had early rumblings at the dawn of the 1900s, but America outside the church became aware of it in 1906 with the Azusa Street Revivals in California. Like Romanticism before it, Pentecostalism emphasized personal experience through the new doctrine of “Spirit baptism,”[3] which led to speaking in tongues as evidence of salvation. After this second baptism, people gained other supernatural gifts like prophecy, healing, and casting out demons. Unlike much of Christianity before it, Pentecostalism believed the book of Acts (especially chapter 2 and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost) reflected a typical Christian life.
Assuming that the book of Acts implied a constant life of supernaturalism, Pentecostals reasoned that a crucial part of Christian living wasn’t just a person’s encounter with God but also breaking Satan’s hold on the world and individual lives. They pictured themselves in a war against his lies, claiming that individuals in the audience or Christians across the country who resisted or opposed them were under the sway of the devil. In addition to healing people from sickness (which was always and only blamed on Satan), they also set people free from demonic possession and oppression.[4]
Pentecostalism also started developing an expanded demonology.[5] While demons had historically been portrayed as satanic servants and troublemakers, Pentecostalism has given them more unique roles over the years. Early Pentecostalism began a sort of demonic pantheon that has individual names and jobs for demons, eventually spawning modern-day “deliverance ministries” that deliver people from possession and oppression from demons in charge of lust, alcohol, or sickness (to name only a few).[6] Today, even Christians outside the Pentecostal tradition find themselves affirming many of the same beliefs about Satan and, to a lesser degree, the activity of demons in our lives.[7]
While Pentecostalism played a prominent role in cementing Puritanism’s dualistic understanding of Satan’s work in our personal lives, Fundamentalism saw the devil in external threats to core tenets of Christianity. Despite our modern assumptions about what Fundamentalism stands for, it originally began in opposition to the rise of religious liberalism within the church.[8] Their battle was against the church’s compromise with culture that led (and still leads) to interpreting the Bible through an anti-God worldview instead of the other way around.
Many early Fundamentalist writers and preachers attributed religious liberalism to the direct action of the devil, which was in line with the Puritan tradition. Though many early Fundamentalists focused their efforts on fighting the general worldliness invading the church more than engaging in a direct spiritual battle with Satan, those who spoke to the common person were more generous with seeing Satan behind it all. Billy Sunday is a shining example of this, claiming Satan was behind the liquor industry and preaching about his constant and personal attacks against all people.[9] Though likely without intending to, this popular preaching style became one piece of a puzzle that contributed to modern-day Revivalism.
Because Revivalism has become the norm for many modern Protestants, it may be difficult to appreciate its problematic contribution to how we think about Satan today. Yet it is primarily why we assume good preaching is marked by passionate appeals designed to generate emotional responses in the audience, perhaps in the form of an altar call (as popularized by Charles Finney) or a “pray this prayer” style of evangelism. It appeals to the average person where classic Fundamentalism had failed because it makes people feel something, which often leads to people confusing an emotional response to their environment with the saving work of Jesus Christ.
A constant tool in the belt of Revivalist preachers is the fear of Satan. They portray this enemy of God as constantly lurking in the minds and lives of each Christian, calling them to sin or doubt their salvation.[10] He whispers lies, introduces temptations, and is at the root of all internal and external evil. Borrowing heavily from Pentecostalism’s idea of spiritual warfare and combining it with Fundamentalism’s call for purity from the world, Revivalism became the standard for how many Christians think about the power and nature of Satan.
[1] Poole, W. Scott. Satan in America: The Devil We Know. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. 67-89.
[2] Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986. 128-250.
[3] Allan H. Anderson, “Pentecostalism,” in Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church, ed. William A. Dyrness and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic: An Imprint of InterVarsity Press, 2008), 641.
[4] In the early years of the Azusa Street Revivals, William Seymour published a series of papers called “The Apostolic Faith” filled with entries from leaders and accounts from attendees. Amongst other things, these papers testify to how they viewed Satan’s almost god-like power in the lives of human beings.
[5] Even the first issue of “The Apostolic Faith” reports casting out “the devil of drink.”
[6] Locke, Greg. Deliverance Handbook. https://lockemedia.org/deliverancehandbook/.
[7] Read almost any book on “spiritual warfare” to see this in action.
[8] Beale, David O. 1986. In Pursuit of Purity: American Fundamentalism Since 1850. Greenville, SC: Unusual Publications.
[9] (Ellis, William T. Billy Sunday: The Man and His Message, with His Own Words Which Have Won Thousands for Christ. Chicago: The John C. Winston Company, 1914.)
[10] Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, Living in Christ (Charlotte, NC: Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, 2014), 18.
